Biblical Anatolia

…I was caught up in spirit on the Lord’s day and heard behind me a voice as loud as a trumpet, ‘Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea.’

(Rv 1:10-11)

Turkey is called the Other Holy Land as it has more biblical sites than any other country in the Middle East. Unfortunately many Christians are unaware of Turkey’s unique role in the Bible because Biblical references works usually refer to this strategic peninsula, that bounded by the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black Seas, as Asia Minor or Anatolia.

Turkey is very important in understanding the background of the New Testament, because

approximately two-thirds of its books were written either to or from churches in Turkey where the three major apostles—Peter, St. Paul, and St. John—either ministered or lived in.

Turkey’s rich spiritual heritage starts at the very beginning in the book of Genesis.

Anatolia (Anadolu)

The name comes from the Greek Aνατολή (Αnatolḗ) or Ανατολία (Anatolía), which means "east". The Byzantine theme of "Anatolikon" ("eastern one") signified the lands to the east of Europe and Constantinople.The Turkish form Anadolu derives from the Greek version; Turkish folk etymology breaks down the geographical term into two words, "mother" and "full" Thus, Ana, dolu ‘Mother, it is full’ or ‘Full of mothers’.

Because of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and Europe, Anatolia has been a cradle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages, with Neolithic settlements such as Çatalhöyük (Pottery Neolithic), Çayönü (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A to pottery Neolithic), Nevali Cori (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B), Hacilar (Pottery Neolithic), Göbekli Tepe (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) and Mersin. The settlement of Troy starts in the Neolithic and continues forward into the Iron Age.

Through its recorded history, Anatolians have spoken both Indo-European and Semitic languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages have radiated. Other authors have proposed an Anatolian origin for the Etruscans of ancient Italy and the Elymians of Sicily. Historically known peoples that have settled in or conquered Anatolia include the Leleges, Colchians, Hattians, Luwians, Hittites, Phrygians, Cimmerians, Lydians, Lycians, Pisidians, Pamphylians, Persians, Celts, Tabals, Meshechs, Greeks, Pelasgians, Assyrians, Armenians, Romans, Goths, Arabs, Kurds, Byzantines, Seljuk Turks and Ottomans. These peoples belonged to many varied ethnic and linguistic traditions.

Today the inhabitants of Anatolia are mostly native speakers of the Turkish language, which was introduced with the conquest of Anatolia by Turkic peoples and the rise of the Seljuk Empire in the 11th century. However, Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). The last population exchange, occurring as result of the Treaty of Lausanne between Turkey and Greece, eliminated most of the Turks in Greece and most of the Greeks in Turkey. A significant Kurdish ethnic and linguistic minority exists in the south eastern regions, while Armenians and Georgians (see Chveneburi) have a presence in the northeast.

The Anatolian peninsula is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean Sea (itself an arm of the Mediterranean) to the west, and the bulk of the Asian mainland to the east.

Anatolia’s terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kızıl River, the coastal plains of Çukurova, and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Büyük Menderes River, and some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Tuz Gölü (Salt Lake) and Konya Ovası (Konya Basin).

Background

The Black Sea region has a steep, rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges. The North Anatolian mountains are an interrupted chain of folded highlands that generally parallel the Black Sea coast. A few larger rivers, those cutting back through the Pontic Mountains (Turkish: Doğu Karadeniz Dağları), have tributaries that flow in broad, elevated basins. Rivers flow from the mountains toward the Black Sea trough in lengthy valleys.

Access inland from the coast is limited to a few narrow valleys because mountain ridges, with elevations of 1,525 to 1,800 metres (5,000 to 5,900 feet) in the west and 3,000 to 4,000 metres (10000 to 13000 feet) in the east in Kaçkar Mountains, form an almost unbroken wall separating the coast from the interior. The higher slopes facing southwest tend to be densely wet. Because of these natural conditions, the Black Sea coast historically has been isolated from Anatolia. The southern slopes—facing the Anatolian Plateau—are mostly unwooded, but the northern slopes contain dense growths of both deciduous and evergreen trees.

The narrow coastal plains of the Mediterranean region, separated from the Anatolian plateau by the Taurus Mountains, which reach elevations of 2,000 to 2,750 metres (6600 to 9000 feet), are cultivated intensively. Fertile soils and a warm climate make the Mediterranean coast ideal for growing citrus fruits, grapes, figs, bananas, various vegetables, barley, wheat, and, in irrigated areas, rice and cotton. The Çukurova in the east is a plain that is the most developed agricultural area of the Mediterranean region.

Stretching inland from the Aegean coastal plain, Central Anatolia occupies the area between the two zones of the folded mountains, extending east to the point where the two ranges converge. The plateau-like, semiarid highlands of Anatolia are considered the heartland of the country. The region varies in elevation from 600 to 1,200 metres (2000 to 4000 feet) from west to east. The two largest basins on the plateau are the Konya Ovası and the basin occupied by the large salt lake, Tuz Gölü. Both basins are characterized by inland drainage. Wooded areas are confined to the northwest and northeast of the plateau.

Eastern Anatolia

Eastern Anatolia, where the Pontus and Taurus mountain ranges converge, is rugged country with higher elevations, a more severe climate, and greater precipitation than are found on the Anatolian Plateau. The region is known as the Anti-Taurus, and the average elevation of its peaks exceeds 3,000 m. Mount Ararat, at 5,137 metres (16854 feet) the highest point in Turkey, is located in the Anti-Taurus. Lake Van is situated in the mountains at an elevation of 1,546 metres (5072 feet). The headwaters of three major rivers arise in the Anti-Taurus: the east-flowing Aras, which empties into the Caspian Sea; the south-flowing Euphrates and Tigris join in Iraq before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Several small streams that empty into the Black Sea or landlocked Lake Van also originate in these mountains.

Southeast Anatolia lies south of the Anti-Taurus Mountains. It is a region of rolling hills and a broad plateau surface that extends into Syria. Elevations decrease gradually, from about 800 metres (2600 feet) in the north to about 500 metres (1600 feet) in the south. Traditionally, wheat and barley were the main crops of the region, but the inauguration of major new irrigation projects in the 1980s has led to greater agricultural diversity and development.

Anatolian Plateau

Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the interior of Turkey a continental climate with distinct seasons. The Anatolian Plateau is much more subject to extremes than are the coastal areas. Winters on the plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of -30°C to -40°C (-22°F to -40°F) can occur in the mountainous areas in the east, and snow may lie on the ground 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1°C (34°F). Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures above 30°C (86°F). Annual precipitation averages about 400 mm (15.7 inches), with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya Ovası and the Malatya Ovası, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 mm (11.8 inches). May is generally the wettest month and July and August are the driest.

Anatolian Turkish Beyliks

Following the Battle of Malazgirt or Manzikert (1071 Seljuq triumph over the Byzantine empire) and the conquest of Anatolia by the Seljuqs, Oghuz clans – fighting for the Seljuqs – began settling in present-day Turkey. The Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate’s central power established in Konya employed these clans especially in border areas, in order to ensure safety against the Byzantines, under Beys called uj begi (uj is a Turkish term for a border territory, compare marches). These clans led by beys would receive military and financial aid from the Seljuks in return for their services, and acted as if owing full allegiance to their sovereignty. However, during the end days of the reign of Ala ad-Din Kay Qubadh I, especially with the Mongol invasions from the east, the Seljuk power deteriorated and instead Ilkhanate commanders in Anatolia gained strength and authority, which encouraged the beys openly to declare sovereignty. Following the fall of the Seljuk empire, many uj begi joined forces with the atabegs (former Seljuk leaders) and other religious Muslim leaders and warriors from Persia and Turkistan fleeing the Mongols, invading the Byzantine empire where they established emirates. To maintain control of their new territory, these reestablished emirs employed Ghazi warriors from Persia and Turkistan who also fled the Mongols. The ghazis fought under the inspiration of either a mullah or a general, trying to assert Islamic power, their assaults of the reestablished emirs upon the Byzantine Empire reaching even further expanded the power sphere of the beyliks.

When the Byzantine empire weakened, their cities in Asia Minor could resist the assaults of the beyliks less and less, and eventually many Turks settled in western parts of what now was known as Anatolia. As a result, many more beyliks were founded in these newly conquered western regions. However, power struggles and conflicts arose between them.

In the beginning, the most powerful states were the Karamanoğlu (or Karamanid) and the Germiyan, whereas the Osmanoglu (who were to found the Ottoman Empire, and ensure Anatolian Turkish unity) were relatively quite weak. But with their annexation of the Beylik of Karesi and their advance into Roumelia, they became the main rivals of Karamanoğlu, who were then thought to be the strongest. The Ottomans advanced further into Anatolia by acquiring towns, either by buying them off or through marriage alliances. Meanwhile the Karamanoğlu assaulted the Ottomans many times with the help of other beyliks, Mamluks, Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep) Turkmens, Byzantines, Pontics and Hungarians, failing and losing power every time. The early Ottoman leaders conquered large parts of land from Karamanoğlu and other less prominent beyliks, which were restored to them after the Ottoman defeat suffered against Tamerlane in 1402 in the Battle of Ankara.

But the Ottoman state quickly collected itself under Mehmed I and his son Murad II re-incorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in a space of around 25 years. The final blow for the Karamanoğlu was struck by Mehmed II who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken by Selim I who conquered Ramazanoğlu and Dulkadir territories in 1515 during his campaign against the Mamluks, and his son Süleyman the Magnificent who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 Irakeyn (‘the two Iraks’, i.e. Arab and Persian).

Many of the former Anatolian beyliks became the basis for administrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire.

List of the Anatolian beyliks

In the list below, a distinction should be made between the beyliks that were founded immediately after the Battle of Malazgirt (1071), mostly situated towards the Eastern Anatolia, and who were vassals (or sometimes at war) to the centralized power of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate based in Konya, and between those beyliks that emerged as a result of the weakening of this central state under the Mongol blow with the Battle of Köse Dag in 1275. toward the end of the 13th century, extending the Turkish aire in Western Anatolia. For one specific case (Çaka Bey’s Beylik of İzmir), it should be remembered that, immediately after the Battle of Malazgirt, Turkish forces had spread as far as the western tip of Anatolia, in immediate vicinity of the Byzantine capital, and had established their capital in İznik for 20 years (1077-1097), before ebbing back to the inland. A parallel offshoot of this first foray had been the Beylik of İzmir.

Founded after the Battle of Malazgirt

• Artuklu (three different branches with different durations covering Diyarbakır, Hasankeyf, Mardin, Silvan, Harput)
• Danishmend (covering Sivas, Malatya, Kayseri, Tokat, Amasya; 1071-1178)
• Dilmachoglu (covering Bitlis and Erzurum; 1085-1192)
• İnaloglu (short-lived; centered in Diyarbakır)
• Mengüdjek (covering Erzincan, Kemah, Divriği; 1071 – mid 13th century)
• Saltuklu (centered in Erzurum; 1092-1202)

Founded after the Battle of Kose Dag

• Alaiye (vassals to Karamanoğlu; centered in Alanya; 1293-1471)
• Aydınoğlu (covering Aydın and İzmir; around 1300-1425)
• Candaroğlu (also called İsfendiyaroğlu; centered in Kastamonu; 13th century)
• Chobanoglu (also centered in Kastamonu)
• Dulkadir (centered in Maraş; 1348-1507)
• Eretna (covering Sivas and Kayseri; 14th century)
• Eshrefoglu (covering Beyşehir and Seydişehir; 13th century)
• Germiyan (centered in Kütahya; 1300-1429)
• Hamidoglu (centered in Isparta and Eğirdir; around 1300-1391)
• Karamanoğlu (centered in Karaman; 13th century – 1487)
• Karesi (centered in Balıkesir; 1303-1345)
• Kadı Burhaneddin (centered in Kayseri; 1381-1398)
• Ladik (also called İnanchoglu; centered in Denizli; 13th century – 14th century)
• Menteşe – (centered in Milas; 1261-1414)
• Osmanoglu (Ottomans) (first centered in Söğüt, then Bursa)
• Pervaneoglu (centered in Sinop)
• Ramazanoğlu (centered in Adana; 1352-1517)
• Sahipata (centered in Afyonkarahisar; 1275-1341)
• Saruhan (centered in Manisa; around 1300-1410)
• Sökmenli (also called Ahlatshah; centered in Ahlat; 1100-1207)
• Teke (centered in Antalya; 1321-1423)